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After reading this article, you should be able to understand arguments, evidence, counterarguments, audiences, and critical reading. You should be able to create an argument for a specific audience, using evidence and counterarguments to support your claim. 

What is an argument?

There are numerous definitions of argument. The most basic one is the following: “An argument is a piece of discourse or writing in which someone tries to convince others (or himself) of the truth of a claim by citing reasons on its behalf” (Govier, 1987, p. 4).

The parts of an argument

According to the aforementioned definition we can say that an argument is a set of propositions and linking words that express logical relations. The main proposition is usually called “claim” or “conclusion”. The secondary proposition is called “premise” or “evidence”. Some linking words commonly found in arguments are “because”, “since”, “due to”. 

Example: American cars are durable because their inner components meet the highest standards in the industry. 

As you can see in the example, there are two propositions 1. “American cars are durable” and 2. “American cars’ components meet the highest standards in the industry”. The first proposition expresses the idea that is claimed, while the second one offers support to the first one. That relation is made explicit by adding the linking word “because”. 

College professors will ask you to defend, oppose, or offer your own point of view to an interpretation of information. For most writing assignments, you will need to go beyond summarizing what you have learned in class. You will need to develop an analysis or interpretation of the material and provide evidence for your claim.

The importance of “because”

The word “because” establishes a hierarchical relation between propositions. Finding out the word “because” in a set of sentences it’s relevant because it indicates that you’re reading an argument. That is why when building your own arguments, it is also important to include it. The reason is that the term “because” expresses clearly what you are intending to argue as well as the support for it.

Example:

Learning how to write essays properly is beneficial for your career because it prepares you to communicate clearly and effectively. 

In the example, the idea of “being prepared to communicate clearly and effectively” supports the idea that “learning how to write essays properly is beneficial for your career”. Again, the word “because” helps us to find out which proposition is argued for and which one is being offered as a piece of evidence.

Crafting an argument

By making a claim, an argument always takes a specific position on an issue. The more specific your claim is, the better your paper will be. Of course, if the claim is too specific, then it might be uncontroversial or even trivial. 

A strong argument demonstrates that you understand the material, but it also shows your ability to apply it in ways that go beyond what you have read. For example, you might critique the material, apply it to another field, or explain it in a different way. In order to do this, you need a particular point to argue. 

As you know, arguments are essential parts of argumentative essays. Creating arguments is in fact quite easy. The first step is to formulate a claim that we want our audience to convince. Take for example this proposition “radio shows are better than tv shows”.  It clearly tries to make a point. However, if we don’t provide any additional information this is just an opinion, not an argument. To create one, additionally we need to provide a reason to support our claim. A possible reason is the following “radio shows are less distracting than tv shows”. Now we just have to connect them by adding the word “because”. The outcome will be:

Example:

Radio shows are better that tv shows because radio shows are less distracting.

Of course, in graduate school arguments are more complex than the example. However, it’s important to understand the basic form of arguments to be able to build up more sophisticated ones.

Evidence

Evidence can make or break an argument. For example, consider convincing your parents to let you borrow their car. You might use evidence to highlight your trustworthiness, make them feel guilty because your friends’ parents all let them drive, use driving statistics to demonstrate your responsibility. In academia, an argument also needs strong persuasive evidence. 

Every field has different requirements for acceptable evidence, so it is a good idea to familiarize yourself with that particular discipline. For example, an English professor might expect different forms of evidence than a sociology instructor would. Find out what counts as proof for your field. 

Be consistent with your evidence, making sure it supports your claim. If you are arguing that student seating should be moved closer to the basketball court in order to improve players’ performances, do not use evidence that argues players should attend games for free. The less confusing your argument is, the more effective it will be.

Counterarguments

One way to strengthen your argument is to consider what someone who disagrees with your position might have to say. By addressing objections, you can prove that your argument is logical and well researched. A counterargument should address some of the reasons your audience might not accept your argument, giving you a chance to be more persuasive.

For most academic assignments, it’s better to focus on one or two counterarguments. That way, you have time to explain them in depth instead of using a lot of time and space to describe a lot of points and once.  

To create counterarguments, consider how someone who disagrees with you might respond to each of the points you have made or your position as a whole. Try these strategies:

• Do research. It may seem as though no one could possibly disagree with your argument but your topic likely has opponents. For example, some people claim the American Civil War never ended. Doing research will strengthen your counterargument by giving you ideas that you do not have considered otherwise.
• Talk with friends and teachers. Another person may be able to imagine counterarguments that have not occurred to you. 
• Imagine someone opposing each claim you make. For example, if you argue, “Cats make the best pets because they are clean and independent,” you might imagine someone saying, “Cats do not make the best pets. They are dirty and needy.” 

Once you have some counterarguments, imagine responding to them. Why should your audience accept your argument? Will you mention that the counter arguments are valid but the audience should still accept your argument? Will you reject the counterargument and explain why it is mistaken? Either way, your argument needs to be stronger than the opposing arguments. You will also want to be sure that your counterargument is consistent with your own claim. If a counterargument changes your position, you might need to revise your original argument. 

When using counterarguments, be sure to present each argument fairly and objectively, rather than attacking your opponents or trying to make them look foolish. You want to show that you have seriously considered all sides of a complicated issue.

The underlying principle to test the strength of an argument

When reading critically try to inquire whether the evidence offered as support for the main idea is enough to convince a rational person. Usually, the authors assume that you agree with the underlying principle of their argument. That is, they tend to provide the minimum evidence to prove their point, hoping you would fill the gaps. However, quite often, objecting to the underlying principle is the best way to test the strength of their argument. A couple of examples will clarify this point. 

Example I

Consider the following argument: “diet coke is better than regular coke because it does not contain sugar”. After reading that argument, a critical reader would ask the question “so what?” In other words, she would ask, first, why a substance that doesn’t contain sugar is something positive; second, she would try to look for cases in which consuming sugar is actually good; third, she would try to find out the perspective from which the arguer is uttering her reasoning. 

Example II

Now read this argument: “taxes are bad because they decrease your net income”. The next step is to ask the question “so what?”. In this case, the underlying principle is harder to obtain since people intuitively don’t want their net income to decrease. However, if we inquire further, we might see that decreasing your net income is not inherently bad when in exchange you receive some direct benefits, for example, the protection of the police.

Loaded words

Now, there is another aspect that a critical reader should pay attention to. The way an idea is expressed always involves the selection of certain words. In other words, we always choose the words to communicate something. This means that there’s more than one way to express an idea. 

For example, you can say that you’ve “spent money” on something, that you “wasted your money” on buying something, or even that you “invested your money” on some public assets. Therefore, when reading critically try to determine whether the argument can be reworded in a way that unveils a different perspective.    

Audience

Know your audience when you are building a claim. Knowing your audience will allow you to create arguments tailored to convince them. For example, your family members are probably persuaded by different types of arguments. While whining may work with one parent, the other may prefer statistics. Your siblings may be convinced with money. In college. your audience is someone who is educated and intelligent but who does not necessarily agree with you; therefore, your argument needs to be convincing. It’s best to steer away from stating your opinion without strong evidence (i.e., “It’s true because I said so”). 

It can be helpful to imagine to imagine your audience consists of a small group: your professor and TA, who are likely familiar with the with the subject, and someone from another country who has never heard of the subject you are describing. To appeal to this audience, you will want to use concise language this is as specific as possible in order to state your claim and your evidence clearly. Never assume your audience knows the material, understands what part you are using, what you think about it or why you have chosen a particular position.

Critical Reading

Critical reading is essential to understanding an argument. Although some of the material you read will be very persuasive, very few of your instructors think of the texts they assign as the last word on the subject. Remember that the author of every text wants you to believe something. While this is OK (everything is written from someone’s perspective), it’s important to read sources carefully, being aware of objectivity and bias. 

To read more critically, take notes in the margins of your source (if you are using a photocopy or your own book) or on a separate paper. Try putting the author’s ideas in your own words. This will help you stop thinking of these ideas as facts and start thinking of them as arguments. Ask yourself the following questions:

• What is the author trying to prove?
• Is the author assuming I will agree with something? What is it?
• Do I agree with the author?
• Does the author defend his/her argument in a convincing way? 
• What kind of proof does he/she use?
• Is there something the author leaves out that I would put in? Does putting in hurt his/her argument?   

As you practice reading critically, you will begin to see the writer’s hidden agendas. This will improve your own ability to craft effective arguments.

Work consulted

Govier, T. (1988). Problems in Argument Analysis and Evaluation. Berlin: Foris/De Gruyter.